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Saturnalia in Ancient Rome: A Pagan Christmas?
The festival of Saturnalia was one of the most beloved celebrations in ancient Rome, famous for feasting, gift-giving, carnival-style merrymaking, and the temporary reversal of social order.
Because the festival took place in midwinter and featured customs like public banquets, exchanging small gifts, and cheer in the darkest days of December, some modern writers compare it loosely to winter festivities today.
This article looks at what Saturnalia actually was according to historical sources, why it mattered to Roman society, and how it became a cultural symbol of freedom and joy.
What Was Saturnalia in Ancient Roman Culture?
The festival dedicated to the god Saturn was held on December 17, according to the ancient Roman calendar(Michels, 1990, p. 11).
It honored Saturn, a Roman god associated with sowing and agriculture, and began as a public sacrifice followed by a feast in the Roman Forum.
Michels notes that Romans celebrated Saturnalia with traditional rites “in Greek fashion, with uncovered head” (1990, p. 11).
The celebration expanded after the crisis of 217 BC, when Rome suffered frightening omens during the war with Hannibal.
The Senate decreed that Saturnalia should become a public banquet funded by the state, and that citizens would preserve the Saturnalia tradition forever (Michels, 1990, p. 11). From this point, Saturnalia became a Roman festival well loved across the ancient world.
What Made Saturnalia a Feast of Joy and Freedom?
Michels explains that the festival grew into a carnival atmosphere because Romans needed a break in midwinter, when nights were long and cold (1990, p. 11).
Houses were decorated, people gathered with friends, and families enjoyed large meals. Saturnalia was celebrated with “merrymaking,” jokes, and relaxation in a season that otherwise symbolized scarcity.
Roman writers also describe the festival as a time of laughter and warmth.
The poet Catullus reportedly called Saturnalia “the best of days,” and Churco comments on its cheerful public spirit (1938, p. 26). This atmosphere made Saturnalia one of the most anticipated holidays of the year.
How Did Gift-Giving Work During Saturnalia? Was it like a Pagan Christmas?
Michels notes that a key custom of the celebration involved exchanging wax candles and small figurines called sigilla(1990, p. 11).
These small Saturnalia gifts were offered to friends, family, and sometimes to guests. Scholars believe that wax tapers symbolized the returning light after the darkest nights of winter.
According to Churco, these gifts existed alongside feasting and public fun, creating an environment similar to a cheerful winter holiday (1938, p. 25).
This is one reason some modern writers discuss the festival of Saturnalia when talking about Christmas and the New Year, although historians are careful to distinguish influence from proven origin.
What Was the Social Meaning of Misrule?
One of the most famous customs of Saturnalia involved misrule. Slaves were allowed to relax, dine with their masters, and speak freely.
Michels writes that even slaves joined their masters at banquets during Saturnalia (1990, p. 11).
Some sources mention a mock king, sometimes called the “leader of Saturnalia,” chosen to issue humorous commands.
This temporary reversal of roles symbolized a mythic return to the Golden Age, when Saturn was believed to have ruled a peaceful, equal world.
Ancient writers such as Lucian and Macrobius comment on this playful freedom. Nothing in the academic literature suggests permanent social equality, but for a few days, even a freedman or slave could enjoy a carnival-like atmosphere.
How Long Did Saturnalia Last?
Originally, Saturnalia was held on 17 December, but it expanded over time. Michels notes that by late antiquity, the celebration grew and overshadowed other December observances (1990, p. 11).
Some ancient writers imply that the fun continued for a whole week, although Roman calendars differed over time.
This spread of celebrations helps historians understand why the month of December became a festive period in ancient Rome, filled with gatherings, games, and merrymaking.
Did Saturnalia Involve a Lord of Misrule?
A temporary “king” of the celebration appears in several ancient descriptions. Lucian refers to a mock king, while Macrobius describes a master of ceremonies who presided over jokes and playful commands.
Scholars describe this figure as a type of lord of misrule, similar to role-reversal traditions seen in other historical festivals.
This playful behavior created a joyful contrast with everyday structure. Even slaves could give witty orders to their masters.
In the poetic imagination of Rome, this represented a brief return to the world before laws and hierarchy.
Did Saturnalia Include Human Sacrifice?
Ancient authors sometimes mentioned stories of human sacrifice connected to Saturn, but Michels emphasizes these as traditional legends rather than confirmed practice in the late Republic or Empire.
The festival known historically was a benevolent and highly social celebration rather than a violent ritual.
Most academic sources agree that recorded Saturnalia practices involved feasting, holiday freedom, gambling, and gifts. The stories of earlier sacrifice belong mostly to mythic memory rather than the lived Roman holiday.
What Was the Role of Sigillaria?
The sigillaria, sometimes celebrated on or after December 23, developed as part of the gift season.
Figurines and small tokens were sold in markets so that Romans could exchange figurines called sigilla with loved ones. Churco describes this as part of a growing tradition of gift-giving in the later Republic and Empire (1938, p. 25).
This practice likely helped Saturnalia survive for centuries. Markets, merchants, and public spaces filled with life during a season when many other activities slowed.
Was Saturnalia Linked to the Winter Solstice?
It was close but not identical. Michels clearly writes that Saturnalia did not mark the winter solstice, which fell on 25 December in the Republican calendar (1990, p. 11).
However, Romans likely felt that the festival belonged to the darker season when days stopped shortening and light would soon return.
The December timing explains why people sometimes associate Saturnalia with Christmas and the New Year, even though academic sources insist that historical connections are complex and not reducible to a single line of influence.
What Did Ancient Writers Say About Saturnalia?
The scholar Macrobius wrote an entire dialogue around Saturnalia, discussing myths, jokes, and customs.
Other Roman writers such as Statius and Lucian commented on the celebrations, the conical felt caps worn by revelers, and the liberty granted during festival days.
Some poems even exchanged the greeting “Io Saturnalia”, an equivalent to “Happy Saturnalia,” expressing joy in community and festivity.
Michels writes that the emotional need for warmth and laughter made the festival especially beloved in ancient Roman life (1990, p. 11).
References
Churco, J. M. (1938). Christmas and the Roman Saturnalia. The Classical Outlook, 16(3), 25–26.
Cudny, W. (2014). The Phenomenon of Festivals: Their Origins, Evolution, and Classifications. Anthropos, 109(2), 640–656.
Forbes, B. D. (2007). First There Was Winter. In Christmas: A Candid History (pp. 19–31). University of California Press.
Michels, A. K. (1990). Roman Festivals: October–December. The Classical Outlook, 68(1), 10–12.
Nothaft, C. P. E. (2012). The Origins of the Christmas Date: Some Recent Trends in Historical Research. Church History, 81(4), 903–911.